Brillouin Optical Time-domain Analysis Research Articles

Performance Enhancement in a Few-Mode Rayleigh-Brillouin Optical Time Domain Analysis System Using Pulse Coding and LMD Algorithm

Rayleigh Brillouin optical time domain analysis (BOTDA) uses the backscattered Rayleigh light generated in the fiber as the probe light, which has a lower detection light intensity compared to the BOTDA technique. As a result, its temperature-sensing technology suffers from a low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and severe sensing unreliability due to the influence of the low probe signal and high noise level. The pulse coding and LMD denoising method are applied to enhance the performance of the Brillouin frequency shift detection and temperature measurement. In this study, the mechanism of Rayleigh BOTDA based on a few-mode fiber (FMF) is investigated, the principles of the Golay code and local mean decomposition (LMD) algorithm are analyzed, and the experimental setup of the Rayleigh BOTDA system using an FMF is constructed to analyze the performance of the sensing system. Compared with a single pulse of 50 ns, the 32-bit Golay coding with a pulse width of 10 ns improves the spatial resolution to 1 m. Further enhanced by the LMD algorithm, the SNR and temperature measurement accuracy are increased by 5.5 dB and 1.05 °C, respectively. Finally, a spatial resolution of 1.12 m and a temperature measurement accuracy of 2.85 °C are achieved using a two-mode fiber with a length of 1 km.

A method for monitoring the uneven settlement of shield tunnels considering the flattening effect using distributed strain data measured from BOTDA sensors

When investigating the uneven settlement monitoring of shield tunnels, the influence of the flattening effect under longitudinal bending is rarely considered, which leads to inaccurate and incomplete settlement monitoring. To address this issue, a method for monitoring the uneven settlement of shield tunnels that considers the flattening effect is proposed, which is achieved using high-density strain data from distributed Brillouin optical time domain analysis (BOTDA) sensors. The high-density measured strain data is used to combine global settlement with the additional influence of the flattening effect, which includes extrusion and shear effects. This approach allows the trend of uneven settlement to be effectively monitored. Furthermore, a finite element model updating process is implemented in advance to improve the accuracy of soil parameters and minimize calculation errors in practical engineering. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method, an application example from the Jinan Rail Transit Line 3 was utilized for numerical simulations and practical tests. The results of the application example reveal that the proposed method has a high accuracy, with measurements comparable to the total station-based method. This indicates that the proposed method is an effective and robust settlement monitoring approach and provides a referential basis for further tunnel operations and maintenance.

Research on key technology to determine the exact maximum allowable current-carrying ampacity for submarine cables

The maximum allowable current-carrying ampacity (MACCA) of a photoelectric composite submarine cable in its design phase is usually patterned considering the weather. However, variations in sea temperature, the uncertainty of the cable's material parameters and the laying environment of the cable greatly influence its CCA. The impact of these factors can damage the cable, regardless of its quality. For this purpose, this paper proposes a developed iterative parameters correction method (IPCM) based on Chord principles, to determine the exact MACCA by means of finite element method (FEM). Different optical fiber temperatures of the cable are collected using Brillouin Optical Time-Domain Analysis (BOTDA); together with the material parameters of the cable, they are modeled in ANSYS modeling software. Then, the proposed approach is conducted before determining the exact MACCA. Results obtained from experiments performed on different data groups show that the mean error rate obtained with the proposed approach is just about 3.78, while that of the other four recent approaches, including AP1, AP2, AP3 and AP4 is about 4.59, 3.96, 4.13 and 4.80, respectively.

Research on the construction and verification of evaluation model for borehole collapse in gas extraction

To improve the precision prevention of gas extraction borehole deformation and collapse, it is an important prerequisite to achieve precise monitoring of boreholes. This work is based on distributed optical fiber monitoring and Brillouin Optical Time Domain Analysis Technique (BOTDA). We carried out simulation and validation experiments of borehole plugging with different particle size ratios, constructed a mathematical model for calculating the plugging rate (denoted by ω) of boreholes, and put forward a new methodology for accurate monitoring and evaluation of gas extraction boreholes. The experimental results show that there is a linear relationship between the strain of optical fiber (denoted by ε), the accumulation mass of the simulated coal samples (denoted by m), and the deformation collapse of the borehole. And a mathematical model for calculating the plugging rate of boreholes with more universality has been built by introducing the ratio, volumetric, and strain correction coefficients (denoted by φ, β, and γ). Based on the verification experiment, it was found that the change in the actual and theoretical plugging rates is consistent. With the increase in the ratio of medium coal (2.0–5.0 cm), the plugging rate error decreases first and then increases. The maximum errors are −18.36 % and 19.04 %, but the plugging rate results are still within the middle boundaries of the collapsed boreholes (29.31 % to 75.07 %) and have a neglected effect on the stage classification. Inevitable errors in model construction and actual accumulation errors are two important factors contributing to errors in mathematical models. Taking ω as 0 %, 27.71+40.05·rord.-2%, 74.50+14.13·rord.-2%, and ε limit value 143.77·φ·γ με as the critical value to distinguish the primary, middle, and late periods of borehole collapse. In this work, a new technology of borehole monitoring and evaluation with plugging rate and strain critical value as evaluation indexes is proposed, which can provide a reference for accurate monitoring of drainage boreholes and gas prevention.

Microwave-free BOTDA based on a continuous-wave self-sweeping laser.

This Letter presents the first demonstration, to our knowledge, of a Brillouin optical time domain analysis (BOTDA) system based on a self-sweeping fiber laser. The unique feature of such laser sources is the generation of a narrowband tunable radiation with a small (6 MHz) tuning step and a reasonably large tuning range (3 GHz) making self-sweeping lasers extremely attractive for use in BOTDA systems. Since the wavelength tuning occurs solely due to internal processes occurring in the laser cavity, there is no need to use complex current/temperature control and feedback systems. This makes it possible to completely eliminate microwave devices, such as electro-optic modulators, from the BOTDA design. In this work, distributed temperature measurements with sensing line length of 25 km, spatial resolution of 10 m, and sensitivity of 2°C is demonstrated in a BOTDA system based on an Er-doped self-sweeping laser. The described approaches can reduce the complexity and overall cost of the BOTDA systems.

Combined Radiation and Temperature Effects on Brillouin-Based Optical Fiber Sensors

The combined effects of temperature (from −80 °C to +80 °C) and 100 kV X-ray exposure (up to 108 kGy(SiO2)) on the physical properties of Brillouin scattering and losses in three differently doped silica-based optical fibers, with varying dopant type and concentration (4 wt%(Ge), 10 wt%(Ge) and 1 wt%(F)), are experimentally studied in this work. The dependencies of Brillouin Frequency Shifts (BFS), Radiation-Induced Attenuation (RIA) levels, Brillouin gain attenuation, Brillouin frequency temperature (CT) and strain (Cε) sensitivity coefficients are studied under X-rays in a wide temperature range [−80 °C; +80 °C]. Brillouin sensing capabilities are investigated using a Brillouin Optical Time Domain Analyzer (BOTDA), and several properties are reported: (i) similar behavior of the Brillouin gain amplitude decrease with the increase in the RIA; (ii) the F-doped and heavily Ge-doped fibers do not exhibit a temperature dependence under radiation for their responses in Brillouin gain losses. Increasing Ge dopant concentration also reduces the irradiation temperature effect on RIA. In addition, Radiation-Induced Brillouin Frequency Shift (RI-BFS) manifests a slightly different behavior for lower temperatures than RIA, presenting an opportunity for a comprehensive understanding of RI-BFS origins. Related temperature and strain sensors are designed for harsh environments over an extended irradiation temperature range, which is useful for a wide range of applications.

Vertical Displacement Measurement in a Slow-Moving Sinkhole Using BOTDA

The effectiveness of monitoring and early-warning systems for ground deformation phenomena, such as sinkholes, depends on their ability to accurately resolve the ongoing ground displacement and detect the subtle deformation preceding catastrophic failures. Sagging sinkholes with a slow subsidence rate and diffuse edges pose a significant challenge for subsidence monitoring due to the low deformation rates and limited lateral strain gradients. In this work, we satisfactorily illustrate the practicality of the Brillouin optical time domain analysis (BOTDA) to measure the spatial-temporal patterns of the vertical displacement in such challenging slow-moving sagging sinkholes. To assess the performance of the approach, we compare the strain recorded by the distributed optical fiber sensor with the vertical displacement measured by high-precision leveling. The results show a good spatial correlation with the ability to identify the maximum subsidence point. There is also a good temporal correlation with the detection of an acceleration phase in the subsidence associated with a flood event.

Research on Similarity Simulation Experiment of Mine Pressure Appearance in Surface Gully Working Face Based on BOTDA.

In order to study the mountain deflection characteristics and the pressure law of the working face after the mining of a shallow coal seam under the valley terrain, a geometric size of 5.0 × 0.2 × 1.33 m is used in the physical similarity model. Brillouin optical time domain analysis (BOTDA) technology is applied to a similar physical model experiment to monitor the internal strain of the overlying rock. In this paper, the strain law of the horizontal optical fiber at different stages of the instability of the mountain structure is analyzed. Combined with the measurement of the strain field on the surface of the model via digital image correlation (DIC) technology, the optical fiber strain characteristics of the precursor of mountain instability are given. The optical fiber characterization method of working face pressure is proposed, and the working face pressures at different mining stages in gully terrain are characterized. Finally, the relationship between the deflection instability of the mountain and the strong ground pressure on the working face is discussed. The sudden increase in the strain peak point of the horizontally distributed optical fiber strain curve can be used to distinguish the strong ground pressure. At the same time, this conclusion is verified by comparing the measured underground ground pressure values. The research results can promote the application of optical fiber sensing technology in the field of mine engineering.

The Optimization of a Pipeline Temperature Monitoring Method Based on Non-Local Means with the Black Widow Optimization Algorithm

The accuracy of pipeline temperature monitoring using the Brillouin Optical Time Domain Analysis system depends on the Brillouin Gain Spectrum in the Brillouin Optical Time Domain Analysis system. The Non-Local Means noise reduction algorithm, due to its ability to use the data patterns available within the two-dimensional measurement data space, has been used to improve the Brillouin Gain Spectrum in the Brillouin Optical Time Domain Analysis system. This paper studies a new Non-Local Means algorithm optimized through the Black Widow Optimization Algorithm, in view of the unreasonable selection of smoothing parameters in other Non-Local Means algorithms. The field test demonstrates that, the new algorithm, when compared to other Non-Local Means methods, excels in preserving the detailed information within the Brillouin Gain Spectrum. It successfully restores the fundamental shape and essential characteristics of the Brillouin Gain Spectrum. Notably, at the 25 km fiber end, it achieves a 3 dB higher Signal-to-Noise Ratio compared to other Non-Local Means noise reduction algorithms. Furthermore, the Brillouin Gain Spectrum values exhibit increases of 9.4% in Root Mean Square Error, 12.5% in Sum of Squares Error, and 10% in Full Width at Half Maximum. The improved method has a better denoising effect and broad application prospects in pipeline safety.

Theoretical and experimental study on cracked-dependent debonding behavior between CFRP and cracked steel substrate using cohesive zone model

The adhesively bonded CFRP (Carbon Fiber-reinforced Polymer) on cracked steel substrate is prone to premature debonding failures due to significant stress concentration resulting from crack opening displacement (COD). This paper presents a theoretical methodology for the crack-dependent bond response of externally bonded CFRP on cracked steel substrate. A bi-linear bond-slip relationship of adhesive is adapted to model the non-linear property of the CFRP-to-steel interface as a cohesive zone. Closed-form solutions of crack-dependent interfacial stress and CFRP stress are derived, considering the elastic, softened, and debonding phases of adhesive. The presented formulations are verified through experiments and numerical simulations. Additionally, the crack-dependent stress distribution is measured by PPP-BOTDA (Pre-Pump-Pulse Brillouin optical time domain analysis) distributed optical fiber sensors in the experiments. The results show good agreement between the analytical solution, measured strain, and finite element (FE) results. Within the range of commonly used design parameters, the interfacial elastic stiffness in the adhesive bond-slip relationship has a significant effect on the peak CFRP stress and interface debonding.

Prediction of crack opening in steel beam based on strains measured from distributed optical fiber sensor

Optical fiber sensors based on the Brillouin optical time domain analysis (BOTDA) have good accuracy of crack opening displacement (COD) measurements. In this paper, we propose a method for COD quantification based on the area under the Brillouin frequency peaks induced by a crack. The study adopted a three-dimensional (3D) finite element model (FEM) to simulate the strain distribution within a segment of an optical fiber. The simulation results revealed that an increase in COD was associated with an increase in the Brillouin frequency peak area. The peak strain increased by 93 μϵ when the COD increased from 30 μm to 110 μm. The numerical findings were proved experimentally by employing a BOTDA interrogator for distributed sensing of strains. Two cracks in a 15-m-long steel beam were detected with the smallest error of 13%. The COD was predicted from the areas under the crack-introduced strain peaks under varying loads of 97, 196, 294 and 392 N. The effect of different spatial resolutions (10, 20 and 50 cm) and intervals (1, 2.5 and 5 cm) on sensing performance was discussed. Compared to previous research, the 3D FEM not only accurately predicted the changes in distributed optical fibers with cracks but also simplified traditional theoretical analysis. For the first time, a method has been introduced to predict cracks by comparing the area under the Brillouin peaks. This approach not only enhanced linearity but also reduced errors. The proposed method can be easily implemented in engineering practice for multi-point crack sensing in civil infrastructure.

Endogenous BOTDA in the self-homodyne coherent detection transmission system for communication-integrated datacenter temperature monitoring.

This Letter demonstrates the high compatibility of the self-homodyne coherent detection (SHCD) transmission system with the Brillouin optical time-domain analyzer (BOTDA). By fully utilizing the remote delivered local oscillator (LO) light of the transmission system, the first, to the best of our knowledge, endogenously integrated BOTDA subsystem is achieved. The remote delivery of the homologous laser source in the SHCD system ensures the frequency match between the probe light and the pump light of the BOTDA. Furthermore, an injection-locked distributed feedback (DFB) laser is employed to amplify the LO and eliminate the impact induced by the Brillouin gain. The experiment demonstrates that a 16-km distributed temperature sensing based on BOTDA can be insensibly emerged into a 50-Gbaud DP-16QAM SHCD transmission system (400 Gbps/λ/core), achieving a spatial resolution of 3 meters and a temperature accuracy of 1°C. Remarkably, the auxiliary sensing module has negligible impact on the transmission.

Scanning-free hybrid Rayleigh-Brillouin distributed fiber-optic sensing system.

Hybrid systems based on Brillouin optical time domain analysis (BOTDA) utilizing Rayleigh backscattering light wave as a probe have enabled single-end and long-range distributed sensing for multiple parameters. However, the spatial resolution for dynamic parameter measurement is limited, and the frequency scanning process of BOTDA is time-consuming. To address these challenges, we propose a hybrid system that combines BOTDA and time-gated digital optical frequency domain reflectometry (TGD-OFDR), aiming to enhance the spatial resolution of dynamic measurements without compromising the system's signal-to-noise ratio and eliminate the frequency scanning process of BOTDA. In the experimental setup, we conducted measurements on a 9.52 km single-mode fiber. A sinusoidal vibration with a frequency of 3 kHz was measured with a spatial resolution of 3 m, achieving a noise floor of 0.05 nε/√Hz. Furthermore, temperature measurements with a spatial resolution of 10 m and a Brillouin frequency shift (BFS) measurement accuracy of 0.74 MHz were successfully obtained using the scanning-free single-end BOTDA technique. This hybrid system shows promising potential for various applications in distributed fiber-optic sensing.

Reducing the Impact of Relative Intensity Noise via Phase-Based Measurement in Raman-Assisted Brillouin Optical Time-Domain Analysis

Reducing the Impact of Relative Intensity Noise via Phase-Based Measurement in Raman-Assisted Brillouin Optical Time-Domain Analysis

Optical-Fiber-Embedded Beam for Subgrade Distributed Settlement Monitoring: Experiments and Numerical Modeling

In this study, Brillouin optical time domain analysis (BOTDA) sensing technology was utilized for monitoring settlement in a similarity model of a highway subgrade. As contact winding cannot be used for an optical fiber that is buried directly in the soil, uncoupling between the fiber and the soil can occur. Thus, an optical-fiber-embedded beam (OFEB) was developed, and a method for measuring and calculating the beam’s deformation was proposed. A calibration test and a test on a similarity model of a subgrade were carried out to investigate the applicability and monitoring accuracy of the OFEB. It was concluded that the OFEB can accurately measure beam deflection, and the maximum relative error between measurements by the optical fiber and a displacement transducer was approximately 5%. The OFEB was embedded directly into a similarity model of a subgrade to monitor settlement. The deflection deformation of the OFEB was found to be close to the subgrade settlement over a certain settlement range, with a relative error below 8.1%. Thus, the OFEB can be used to measure large-range distributed settlement in a subgrade. A numerical simulation was performed to identify appropriate beam dimensions and material design parameters, thereby extending the measurement range before decoupling of the OFEB and the soil occurs. The enhancement of the measurement range and the accuracy of the OFEB based on the preliminary experiments carried out in this study enables further investigation of settlement monitoring.

A Cross-Diagnosis Method for Determining the Structural Condition of a Long-Span Suspension Bridge Based on the Spatial Windows of Distributed Strain Data

Using structural health monitoring (SHM) techniques, Brillouin optical time-domain analysis (BOTDA) sensors can be mounted along the main box girder entire length of a long-span suspension bridge, and the high-density measured points strain monitoring data can be obtained. However, insufficient research has been conducted on accurately diagnosing the structural condition of a long-span suspension bridge by using the abovementioned strain monitoring data. To address this issue, a cross-diagnosis method that determines the structural condition of long-span suspension bridges based on the distributed strain data spatial window is proposed in this study. First, the distributed strain data spatial window based on a long-span suspension bridge structural symmetry is defined. Then, a method that divides the distributed strain data of the bridge main box girder into different spatial windows using mutual information between the strain data from BOTDA sensors is presented. The special symmetry of the environmental temperature effect on the spatial window structural performance is carried out to separate the temperature effect from the strain monitoring data; this process can effectively reduce the interference of ambient temperature on the results of the structural condition diagnosis. Second, using a convolutional neural network, a diagnosis index of the structural condition is generated by using the correlation model between the high-density measured points and the distributed strain data belonging to one whole spatial window. Regarding one spatial window, the proposed diagnosis index can effectively reflect the variation in the distributed strain correlation model caused by the damaged condition of the long-span suspension bridge to achieve cross-diagnosis of the structural condition of the bridge. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed method is demonstrated through a numerical simulation using strain monitoring data obtained from a real bridge.

Experimental Investigation on Fatigue Improvement of Orthotropic Steel Bridge Deck Using Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete

AbstractThe high-performance topping concrete overlay would significantly reduce the fatigue stresses at susceptible details of orthotropic steel deck (OSD) and effectively improve the fatigue performance. Full-scale fatigue tests and numerical simulations were carried out to quantify the effects of steel fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC) topping pavement in reducing the OSD fatigue stresses based on a practical bridge design. Fatigue stress of the OSD critical details was measured from tests and cracking was observed in the SFRC overlay. Both an innovative pre-pump-pulse Brillouin optical time domain analysis (PPP-BOTDA) distributed optical fiber sensor and strain gauges were also used to measure the stress at OSD fatigue-prone details, including the crossbeam cut-out, rib-to-deck weld, rib-to-crossbeam weld and splice of U-rib. The corresponding three-dimensional (3-D) finite element model was then established and verified by the test results, and used to conduct a parametric study to obtain a quantitative expression of fatigue stress reduction factor, in terms of relative elastic modulus and thickness of overlay and steel deck plate. The proposed quantitative model of the fatigue stress reduction effect can guide the cost-effective design of composite bridge deck.

Bending-Loss-Resistant Distributed Temperature and Strain Discriminative Brillouin Sensor Based on 98 mol% Germania-Doped Few-Mode Fiber

Temperature–strain cross-sensitivity and bending-induced optical loss are two major limitations that challenge the in-situ application of distributed optical fiber sensors. Researchers have attempted to solve these two issues but seldom can overcome both. This paper proposes a novel bending-loss-resistant distributed temperature and strain discriminative sensor that is based on a 98 mol% germania-doped few-mode fiber and a standard Brillouin optical time-domain analysis setup. In a proof-of-concept demonstration, distributed temperature and strain discriminative measurements were conducted under a bending radius of 0.6 cm, where the maximum temperature and strain deviation were 2.78 ℃ and 33.2 μϵ , respectively.

Robust Vector BOTDA Signal Processing with Probabilistic Machine Learning

This paper presents a novel probabilistic machine learning (PML) framework to estimate the Brillouin frequency shift (BFS) from both Brillouin gain and phase spectra of a vector Brillouin optical time-domain analysis (VBOTDA). The PML framework is used to predict the Brillouin frequency shift (BFS) along the fiber and to assess its predictive uncertainty. We compare the predictions obtained from the proposed PML model with a conventional curve fitting method and evaluate the BFS uncertainty and data processing time for both methods. The proposed method is demonstrated using two BOTDA systems: (i) a BOTDA system with a 10 km sensing fiber and (ii) a vector BOTDA with a 25 km sensing fiber. The PML framework provides a pathway to enhance the VBOTDA system performance.

Experimental study of anchor bolt stress evaluation with hybrid optical fiber monitoring

The evaluation of mechanical properties of bolts is crucial for ensuring the long-term stability and continuous maintenance of underground engineering. Current research prioritizes the development of highly adaptable bolt mechanical behavior monitoring methods. By utilizing bolts with embedded sensors, the working status and surrounding environment can be monitored without affecting the original support structure, enabling effective disaster prevention monitoring. In this study, we introduce an innovative hybrid monitoring system based on strain gauges, Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBG), and Brillouin Optical Time Domain Analysis (BOTDA). A specialized dynamometer with temperature compensation is employed to collect axial force data under step loading conditions. We compare the sensing characteristics of various methods and derive the strain transmission coefficients of fiber sensors at different distances. The results demonstrate that the FBG and BOTDA accurately reflect the magnitude and change patterns of the monitored parameters, highlighting the potential application of this novel system for bolt monitoring. This work proposes a unique fiber optic temperature compensator and strain transmission coefficient analysis method to promote the evaluation quality of anchor bolt stress behaviors, which would provide realistic significance to enhance the accuracy and reliability of bolt mechanical property evaluation in underground engineering.